White Mesa Community of the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe

Sináwav (Wolf) the Creator made Earth, plants, and animals. The earth was a gift imbued with spiritual gifts. Yagovüch (Coyote), Sináwav's younger trickster brother, was given responsibility to fill a bag with brush cuttings of all kinds and deliver them "over the open country." But he opened the bag early, letting all of the people out. The Nuche (the People), or Utes, were the last to leave the bag, and therefore the best fighters.

In a somewhat different version, Sináwav himself lets the people out, but saves the Nuche for last. They were his people and "when bad things happened in the world, they must not be afraid, for they would be all right" (12-13).

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

"The White Mesa Utes [Weenuche] represent a relatively small group of Native Americans affiliated with the Ute Mountain Utes" (4-5). Their ancestral lands are located in and around what is known as Allen Canyon, traditionally kaná wiyaga (Willow Wash). This is where they came from. Edward Dutchie remembers Mancos Jim saying, "You remember this as long as you live—that Dry Wash, Allen Canyon, Cottonwood, Hammond Canyon, and Comb Wash ... it's yours ... " (33). Whiskers Draw also comprises a part of the traditional lands.

Weenuche means "the ancient ones, the ones who used to be." They have their own distinctive history that connects to the Comanches and Aztecs. This history predates the Ancestral Puebloans.

White Mesa received its name from the white primroses that bloom in spring all over the area.

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

The Utes believe in several spiritual beings, including Turúúkčičin, meaning "Little People." Turúúkčičin are about 2 feet tall. They are powerful healers who can cure any disease. They are thought of as friendly and helpful but can harm you if they're feeling grouchy. It is always best to leave them gifts of cloth, food, rings, or beads (22).

Bear Dance Chief and White Mesa Spiritual Leader Jack Cantsee Jr. shares, "Most of the [Turúúkčičin] lived down along the home ridge. During fall, when the mist and the fog came, you could see their smoke and their fires. They would only come out at night. Adults would use these stories to scare the kids—that they would be taken if they went out at night. Even now, sometimes we take tobacco out to the cliffs."

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

"Ute dialects belong to the Southern Numic sub-branch of the Uto-Aztecan (UA) language family. Thirty UA languages are spread from Idaho to Mexico City, with about half in the American Southwest and half in western Mexico" (14).

The Shoshone, Kawaiisu, Chemehuevi, Southern Paiute, Uintah Ute, White Mesa Ute, and Colorado tribes have languages traced to the Southern Numic sub-branch.

"Today the two languages [of the Ute and Paiute] remain mutually intelligible. The Utes refer to themselves as Nuche and think of themselves as mountain people, while the Paiutes are Pa-Nuche" (15). The Shoshone also have similar vocabulary and pronunciations to the Utes. Traditionally, the Ute's written record was in rock writing, petroglyphs, and pictographs.

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

The relationship between the Nuche people and the land goes back to the beginning of time. "Billy Mike (Čičíč), the oldest resident of the White Mesa community in 1993" explained it best when he said, 'No one really owned the land. It was as if it owned us—the Ute people' (29).

"The most prominent terrain features—the mountains—have tremendous significance to [the Nuche people] for a variety of reasons" (29). Mountains are connected to food and water and are places of worship. The Utes felt blessed to live in the mountains.

When Coyote opened the bag, the Utes stayed behind because they wanted to stay with the Creator. He was pleased and let them live high in the mountains to be near him. This is why the Utes go to the highest peaks—to be closer to the Creator.

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

Water played a key role in helping the Utes decide when and where they traveled for different seasons. The areas rich in water were referred to as paasa'aket. The San Juan River acted as a southern border, the Green River as a northern border, the Colorado River as the western, and the Dolores and Animas Rivers were considered as eastern borders to some. Edward Dutchie once said that "Allen Canyon is like their headquarters," and a place of great importance (30, 33).

The Utes originally built brush houses known as shade houses, traditionally called avagaán. After horses were introduced, the tipi-upright house—or dugutuvagaán—was used. It was made following a "blueprint similar to that of the ... [shade house] but was transportable, more waterproof, and better suited to a mobile lifestyle" (47).

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

Animals played a crucial role in Ute culture. The animals were here before people. Deer and elk provided food, clothing, shelter, and tools. A ceremony preceded every hunt for deer and elk, which were killed and butchered with respect.

Traditional practices like these are more than just simple actions for the Nuche. "Edward Dutchie shared just how important this relationship with the deer still is ... As he continued to explain traditional practices, his voice cracked, and tears welled up and trickled down his cheeks." He explained, "Our ... [actions are passed] from generation to generation to our time ... That is how my corners are set. That is what I do with the meat. Cut four pieces, feed everybody—the universe—then I eat the meat ... It has got to be with prayers" (37).

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

Horses, kaváa to the Utes, were introduced to the Utes around 1692. They aided in moving, hunting, and gathering larger groups, and also assisted in military purposes. Horses "changed the [Nuche's] way of life dramatically in terms of social, economic, military/political, and tribal relations" (41). The Utes loved their horses and would often paint and race them and braid their hair.

"Snakes demanded particular respect. As inhabitants of the underworld, they are dangerous, with powers that go back to the time of creation ... one should not play with snakes or hit them because a 'bad curse' will result" (40).

Bears were shown particular respect and referred to as Grandmother or Grandfather. The Bear Dance is a dance held annually to honor the bear and mark the start of a new hunting season (39).

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

"[T]he Worship Dance, Sun Dance, and Bear Dance share many teachings and symbols ... Each ceremony is unique and performed for a variety of reasons, but the common ground between them cannot be missed. Healing the sick, renewing the necessities of life, connecting spiritually with ancestors for assistance, communicating with the Land Beyond, establishing patterns of prayer and worship, and sharing symbols that unify religious expression characterize the faith of the White Mesa people. Circles, trees, bears, and other emblems are not just tokens of past beliefs but still empower the universe today" (322).

The Bear Dance:

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

The Mourning Dance is also practiced in White Mesa today. After an opening prayer, incense is burned "to carry the words to the Land Beyond." Aldean Ketchum explained that sweetgrass or sage and 'mountain cedar' (Rocky Mountain Juniper) is burned to protect a person's mind and body from being possessed by a spirit. "It keeps them at bay so that the deceased can make the transition from this world to the next" (315).

Jack Cantsee Jr. explains that "the Worship Dance is ... about living, getting the warriors prepared to fight, and lifting up their spirits." He says, "We also do the Sun Dance. In order to dance this dance, the men have to have four dreams: The dreams show what you're going to dance, and what you're going to dance for."

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

"In the old days, a prospective husband who had identified a potential wife carved a flute and then found a place in the rocks above her home. For three days he played his instrument, notifying the girl and her family that he was interested in marriage. Previous contact had made the identity of the suitor evident, so the woman had time to decide. If she accepted his offer, she collected her possessions and walked into the rocks to meet her future husband, who had horses waiting. If she declined and did not go to him by sunset of the third day, before departing he would tie the flute in a tree to weather and decay" (267). Aldean Ketchum is a flute player like his Grandpa Billy who was older than the state of Utah. "I try to capture the stories from my grandpa in my flute music."

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

1598: Spanish settlers began occupying pueblo towns and enslaving Indians, inducing power struggles between tribes for goods. "[T]rade or raid became the primary means to maintain [an] edge ... [over other groups]" (72).

1675-1706: "[T]he Utes entered into their first treaty, which committed them to fight alongside the Spanish against the Apache," but intermittent wars with the Spanish started in 1706 due to the Spanish occupying hunting territories (73-74).

1821: The Spanish abandoned holdings in the United States and the land was left under control of the Mexican government which had few resources to maintain it (74).

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

Ute and Navajo relations were varied. "The Fearing Time" was a full-scale war between the Utes and the Navajo. It started when a group of Navajo men were accused of stealing from and harassing other tribes. The Utes retaliated fiercely.

Even during "The Fearing Time" there were still some bands of Utes and Navajos that were friendly and sought protection with each other from other tribes or from white settlers. They often traded with each other at the borders of the Four Corners region (93).

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

"The Weenuche Utes at this time had an estimated ... 1,500 people total and were divided into bands .... Some practiced limited agriculture, all hunted and gathered, and many mixed with the "Pi-Utes" of Utah" (106). "For many bands, game was scarce, the agents could not provide sufficient food, and whites were invading their territory" (109).

Domesticated goats, cattle, and sheep had been brought with the Spaniards. "Livestock played an important role for the Weenuche," the greater part of them owning fine "Mexican ponies ... Goats were another important item. They provided not only meat but milk, which was put in ground roasted corn or wheat as a mush. This food is very nutritious, and the children especially thrive on it'" (109).

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

Despite failed treaties, white settlers continued to pressure the government to remove the Southern Utes to reservations. "Four days of discussion resulted in the Utes signing over four million acres of land in what is now called the Brunot Agreement ... For the Utes living in southeastern Utah, the reverberations from this act would take longer to reach than those living to the east, where the loss was immediate. [While other Nuche were moved to reservations, the Weenuche hid in the hills and were considered outlaws and renegades. Still, they] ... were well aware of what had happened. It was just a matter of time before they felt the impact" (114).

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

Additional information provided by Jack Cantsee, Jr. and Aldean Ketchum

"The spring and summer of 1878 held more upheaval" (128). The Cimarron and Abiquiu agencies were closed to save money. As a result, the Muaches, Capotes, and Weenuches were relocated to southwestern Colorado.

A new federal government directive required Utes on reservations to work to receive supplies. "The Utes felt that their loss of land was enough to justify payment, which they perceived had been agreed upon" (128).

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

"The Utes' economic and religious ties to the land were unquestionable and not to be trifled with ... To cattlemen searching for free and easy resources ... this was the era of the open range and when land was not being used according to Anglo-American standards, then it was free for the taking" (152).

Miners, cattle ranchers, farmers, and the railroad, seeking to profit from reservation lands, encroached on the land and petitioned the federal government to remove the Southern Utes to the Uintah reservation. Confrontations continued as ranchers' stock grew, consuming resources essential to the Utes traditional lifestyle. The Utes were "dependent on hunting and gathering ... [and] they watched livestock destroy their livelihood" (154).

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

The Utes were "hemmed in by settlers on three sides ... all of whom trespassed onto Ute lands for one reason or another" (150).

The Utes were indignant at "any efforts by whites to use the San Juan grasslands to graze their horses and cattle. Any animal found doing so was fair game for theft, mutilation, or appropriation as a quick meal.

"Since their larder was becoming increasingly thin due to competition for resources, the Utes felt justified in replacing what had been lost to the whites" (151).

The battle of Pinhook Draw was a result of a series of conflicts between Utes, horse ranchers, and other settlers near Moab, Utah. Settlers joined forces and went searching for those who had taken their stock. Although both sides lost lives, the Utes deemed the battle a victory.

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

"[O]n February 8, 1887, the General Allotment, or Dawes, Act passed Congress. By providing individual Indian ownership of the land, it took those holdings from existing reservations ... [distributed set amounts to males], and then opened remaining undistributed lands to settlement as part of the public domain ... On the western end [of the Southern Ute Reservation], where the Weenuche lived, not a single foot of ditch existed... They did not know if there was sufficient water to grow crops on an individual basis, how that water would get to one's allotment, or if the weather and soil were suitable enough to make it profitable" (181). As a result, the Weenuche Utes refused to initiate the allotment process. Attempts were made to move the Weenuche to the Towaoc Reservation.

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

Following a cold and contentious winter in Utah, the Southern Utes unhappily returned to Colorado while the White Mesa Utes remained. On February 20, 1895, "President Grover Cleveland signed the Hunter Bill ... separating the Muache and Capote Utes on the eastern end of the reservation from the Weenuche Utes on the western end" (198).

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

"[T]he Weenuche Utes were confined to a small corner in southwestern Utah, awaiting the miracle of water to transform their land into something livable. The White Mesa Utes had remained in their homeland but were surrounded by cattle operations and growing settlements, while their old way of life was fast disappearing" (201).

"While the Southern Utes held onto many distinctive cultural beliefs and institutions, they moved away from many traditional practices of the Weenuche Utes." Each group took "different but intertwining paths ... over the next one hundred years ... the Muache and Capote bands stepped onto the trail to assimilation, while the Weenuche Utes headed for preservation of a more traditional lifestyle and limited adoption of white ways" (202).

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

"In the government's eyes ... [Native American] education was the door to civilization and the only real answer to an improved reservation situation ... But to the Ute Mountain Utes, education meant losing children who entered the doors of the boarding school in the fall and never returned. Death from disease was a real concern. Loss of traditional practices that tied the people to the land and their religion removed the foundation of what had allowed them to survive. It was one thing to herd cattle, plant crops, and wear white men's clothes, but an entirely different thing to lose the land of one's fathers, deny traditional religion, and accept a foreign social and political structure" (206).

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

"We buried our arrows and tomahawks and guns, and we have never dug them up ... Now the government asks us to dig these up and to fight again. We do not want to go back to the old ways; we do not want our young men to register or to be taken away. Congress and the government who made this war did not ask the ... [Utes] about it. We feel like a man who has had a long sleep and who has awakened and been told things that are going on at the present and things that will be going on in the future ... I have heard that you have made out a paper with all the young men's names from eighteen to forty-five. I want you to rub those names off that paper. I do not want any of these Utes to register" (230). -Buckskin Charlie

Utes continue to resist forced participation in U.S warfare. The Weenuche maintain that their duty is to the land.

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

After the war, the influenza pandemic became a new threat. "On November 14, 1918, the clerk at the Southern Ute Boarding School reported that all forty-five students were kept in school, not quarantined, and later sent home after being exposed" (231). Ute families couldn't help but wonder why this was allowed, and some suspected it was another attempt to get rid of more Nuche. They had "trouble understanding how white men could get sick, take medicine, and get better, while the [Nuche] took the same medicine and died." Still, the Utes suffered few deaths, possibly due to the lack of congregating required for traditional ceremonies and practices. But even so, "Fred Yazzie, a Navajo living in Monument Valley, recalls that groups of Paiutes and Utes traveled ... to the Allen Canyon [kaná wiyaga] area, dying along the way" (231).

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

White invasion on Ute lands "had removed everything [the Nuche] had depended on to survive. Their way of life had been destroyed, their people attacked in peaceful camps" (236).

In retaliation and for survival, the Utes resorted to theft of livestock, food, and other goods. Several encounters resulted in violence and death on both sides. The white settlers felt "some type of punishment needed to be exacted" (233).

After one such theft in 1923, two young Utes stood trial and were found guilty— prosecuted by U.S. law although not considered citizens. Their escape caused a forceful response from the white settlers who "sealed off the town and rounded up all the [Indigenous people] within its limits." Utes were kept in the basement of the schoolhouse.

Edward Dutchie Sr., who was six at the time, recounts, "Each one of us took a place there ... Men were pushed in with guns shoved in their backs. They were locked up and those that were still out were chased in, too. ... That thing was full. When they started using the restroom, it was into buckets. Boy the smell would kill you in there. What I heard as a child was that they were going to take us away from our parents and the older people's heads [would be] cut off ... That was the rumor ... among the Utes." (238).

Utes who escaped were chased down and eventually captured. Posey, one of the leaders, was killed, as well as the two who had been prosecuted. This was the start of the hundred years of silence: No Utes spoke about what had happened. They stopped sharing their stories and stopped resisting.

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

After the events of Posey's Massacre, superintendent McKean decided to settle matters by his own means. "By mid-April [an allotting agent] appeared and began dividing the land in Allen Canyon" into allotments (244). For the Utes, "the government had ... determined their destiny" (247). They were confined to land allotments in Allen Canyon and their children hauled to Towaoc to boarding schools. Allen Canyon was now only a shadow of their homeland.

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

"On June 2, 1924, Congress enacted the Indian Citizenship Act, which granted citizenship to all Native Americans born in the U.S. The right to vote, however, was governed by state law; until 1957, some states barred Native Americans from voting" (Today in History - June 2)

Only in 1957 did Utah allow Native Americans to vote, under court order, the last state to do so.

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

Reconciling the traditional lifeways of the Weenuche with allotment life was impossible. In addition, uranium mines opened near Allen Canyon in the 1930s and 40s, contaminating Ute land, including their main source of water in Cottonwood Canyon. This left them with no choice but to leave their ancestral lands. Aldean Ketchum reflects, "The land took care of us, but now it's being destroyed."

"Starting in the 1950s, the Utes started building houses on the land south of Blanding, which created the community known as White Mesa" (indian.utah.gov). During this time, the Weenuche band was incorporated into the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe.

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

Small improvements have been made to the White Mesa reservation since the Weenuche first relocated there. But these small changes mask the real pains of the White Mesa community. Several miles away sits another uranium mill, the only one remaining in the U.S. The mill's waste pits "spread across about 275 acres and contain more than 700 million pounds of radioactive materials" (Peterson, 2022). Simple daily practices such as drinking tap water, allowing children to play outside, or collecting plants are no longer an option because of the health risks it poses. But the land cannot protect itself, and it is suffering. A spiritual walk of protest against the mill has become an annual tradition since 2017, but no answers are yet in sight.

Read more: White Mesa Ute Lead Spiritual Walk to Protest Uranium Mill by Tim Peterson

Additional information provided by Jack Cantsee, Jr. and Aldean Ketchum

"Exactly when the last of the medicine men at White Mesa disappeared is hard to say, but Jack Cantsee Sr. thought it was in 1947, with the passing of Washington Dutchie. When asked why he thought no one had followed in the traditional footsteps, Cantsee said it was 'scary' and that in order for a medicine man to be effective, he needed to know both the 'good and bad side' of the practice, which in itself was dangerous .... Regardless of when the last shaman passed away, the result is aptly summarized by Duncan ... "The power doesn't die out, but the people who [use it]. It is a matter of learning how to control it. The power and the things they [use], like their medicine men, are still here, but the Indians of today do not know how to harness it, therefore they do not know how to use it ..."" (328-329). Loss of medicine men was just one example of losing the traditional ways.

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

Basket weaving is one ancient Ute practice that still lives on today. Traditionally, women collected "sumac at places like Hammond Canyon, [Allen Canyon,] Elk Ridge, Cottonwood Wash, Montezuma Creek, San Juan River, and Comb Ridge" (264). It took 7 days to peel, split, cure, and dye the materials. Black and brown were the colors used to dye the willows, but today, red is also used.

"A few baskets had different designs, with animals or geometric forms ... [or] followed the traditional wedding basket design" (265). But every basket is unique.

Basket weaving connects the Ute to the muuqqwi-ci, the Ancient Ones while carrying on the Old Ways to future generations. Amanda May is a White Mesa Ute basket weaver who comes from generations of weavers. More information on Amanda can be found HERE.

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

"Today the Native American Church on White Mesa is directed by members of the Cantsee family ... Meetings are held on any number of occasions that can include many of the Christian or national holidays ... or when someone is seeking a blessing or celebrating a birthday ... When older residents participate, the language of choice is Ute, but if younger people are present, English is used. Often people talk of Christ, but at White Mesa the Bible is not part of the service. Instead, symbols such as the fire, staff, earth, and the Creator provide the teachings used ... Either store-bought or mountain tobacco, as well as sage and sweetgrass, carry the prayers to holy beings. The church, based on Ute symbols, provides a connection to traditional beliefs that resonate with past practices." (335-36).

Read more: As If the Land Owned Us: An Ethnohistory of the White Mesa Utes by Robert S. McPherson

Present day people continue to believe in the connection with Earth Mother, recognizing that all living things deserve to be kept in balance and harmony.

When you see a falling star, it is important to say, "mayčü'm," 'I see you.' Utes teach that if you don't, it can contribute to chaos and destruction.

This is the connection between the old and the new, the people and the land, the ancient and the present-day.

The Old Ways are what will help those of White Mesa move forward and reclaim their history and culture. The land is so rich in history, that there are many things yet to be discovered that reflect back to the muuqqwi-ci (Ancient Ones).

Information provided by: Aldean Ketchum and Jack Cantsee Jr.

Reflecting on the future of White Mesa also means reflecting on the past. Aldean Ketchum says, "I believe we have our own history and our own stories of the lives of the people here, Avecan Nuche (Allen Canyon Ute). In Ute, Allen Canyon was called kaná wiyaga (Willow Wash/Canyon). [Our] grandparents had no formal education, and yet they were so skilled in survival. The knowledge and stories of our people is what keeps us strong."

After 100 years, tribal members are breaking the silence and telling these stories. The Hundred Years of Silence is slowly coming to an end as they amplify their voice in the story.

Information provided by: Aldean Ketchum and Jack Cantsee Jr.