How Do We Learn Cognitive Skills from Experts?

This chapter discusses cognitive apprenticeship as an instructional approach that makes thinking visible by revealing the cognitive processes and mental models behind expert performance. The authors share how designers can use an apprenticeship model to develop content that helps novices learn cognitive skills from experts, using McKinsey & Co.'s apprenticeship program as a case study. The chapter highlights the six teaching methods involved in cognitive apprenticeship: modeling, coaching, scaffolding, articulation, reflection, and exploration. It also discusses how designers can implement these methods to inform the development of instructional materials and learning experiences that help novice learners develop the mental models and cognitive processes like those of experts.

Introduction

Cognitive apprenticeship is a unique instructional approach that is supported by the psychological literature on learning and expertise development (Ericsson et al., 2007). As a form of instruction and development, cognitive apprenticeship works to make thinking visible by revealing the cognitive processes and mental models behind expert performance (Collins et al., 1989; Collins et al., 1991). In this chapter, we will discuss the specific elements involved in cognitive apprenticeship and will share how designers can use an apprenticeship model to develop content that helps novices learn cognitive skills from experts.

Design in Context: Cognitive Apprenticeship at McKinsey & Co.

Fostering a culture of intentional learning is part of the McKinsey & Co. mission. McKinsey utilizes apprenticeships to develop employees who are ready to both learn and teach. Forming the basis of its development culture, McKinsey views apprenticeship as a "way of life" and as a tool for accelerating staff proficiency and mastery through on-the-job learning (Christensen, 2023). The building blocks the organization uses to make their apprenticeship program a “way of life” include: (1) setting clear expectations for apprenticeship as a standard evaluated in performance reviews; (2) having clearly defined responsibilities and role-specific expectations for apprenticeship; (3) sharing personal leadership stories from expert staff to emphasize the importance of mentorship; and (4) measuring the impact of apprenticeship to identify best practices and address gaps annually (Christensen, 2023).

The firm’s developmental model was designed using a cognitive apprenticeship framework to unlock continuous skill development in their members and to define the roles and behaviors that both experts and novices should engage in. Cognitive apprenticeship involves six teaching methods: modeling, coaching, scaffolding, articulation, reflection, and exploration (Collins et al., 1989). When compared to traditional apprenticeship, cognitive apprenticeship requires the individual “to deliberately bring the thinking to the surface, to make it visible” (Brown, Collins, & Newman, 1989, p.3). According to Brown et al. (1989), the six teaching methods help learners perform complex tasks, focus their attention by thinking aloud, make sense of feedback from the expert during coaching sessions, and use the cognitive strategies they’ve developed to guide them when they are working independently. Each step in the cognitive apprenticeship model “aids apprentices both in developing self-monitoring and correction skills and in integrating the skills and conceptual knowledge needed to advance toward expertise,” (Brown, Collins, & Newman, 1989, p.2).

McKinsey’s apprenticeship program was developed with the understanding that apprenticeship is a two-way process, where knowledge and learning are exchanged between the expert and the novice. As depicted in Figure 1 below, the apprenticeship model at McKinsey highlights the “bidirectional responsibilities of both experts and novices” (Christensen et al., 2021, p. 7), indicating the behaviors they are expected to engage in during the apprenticeship.

Figure 1

McKinsey’s Cognitive Apprenticeship Framework

Experts are expected to model, scaffold, and coach, which are key elements of the cognitive apprenticeship model as well as fade which means reducing or increasing support to novices as needed. Though McKinsey’s apprenticeship model does not explicitly include every step in the cognitive apprenticeship framework it does implicitly provide opportunities for reflection and exploration by expecting apprentices to articulate, observe, and act during their interactions with experts. With this approach, McKinsey demonstrates that apprenticeship is much more than a teaching tool and that “at its core, it’s a deep relationship between people and gives organizations yet another tool through which they can foster cohesion, meaning, purpose, and connection” (Christensen et al., 2021, p. 10). For that reason, utilizing a cognitive apprenticeship framework like McKinsey’s can assist organizations in nurturing a culture of learning that gives experts and novices opportunities to teach, learn, and lead.

Discussion Questions

How does McKinsey’s approach develop the cognitive processes of its members?
What are some ways you might implement different cognitive apprenticeship methods into your organization?

Key Design Principles

Verbalize thinking aloud when modeling behavior through videos or live presentations.
Provide specific and personalized feedback through comments.
Give learners space to articulate their thinking and thought processes by developing discussion boards for collaboration and reflection.
Reduce support gradually and give learners space to work more independently.

What is Cognitive Apprenticeship?

Cognitive apprenticeship is a transformative learning model that helps learners understand expert mental models and cognitive processes through observation, practice, and guidance (Collins, 1989; Dennen & Burner, 2007). Cognitive apprenticeship emphasizes cognitive and metacognitive processes, thereby distinguishing it from traditional apprenticeship models that typically focus on physical or motor skills (Butler et al., 2019). Cognitive apprenticeship has been applied in various contexts, including computing education where it has shown positive effects on student enthusiasm, course pass rates, and instructor workload management (Shah & Soosai Raj, 2024). Researchers have also found that implementing cognitive apprenticeship methods in teacher training can improve performance, especially when integrating a technology-enhanced cognitive apprenticeship (TECA) that utilizes a diverse range of technology such as videos or discussion boards to support learning during the clinical experience (Kopcha & Alger, 2014). Similarly, one study indicated that an instructional program for teachers that was designed using a cognitive apprenticeship framework “enhanced both the cooperating teacher’s and university supervisor’s roles, built bridges between the university and the field experience, and expanded communication, community, and a sense of support for all members of the triad,” ( Kopcha & Alger, 2011, p.43).

Designing to Learn Cognitive Skills from Experts

Cognitive apprenticeship provides learners opportunities to observe and learn from expert thought processes in relevant social contexts (Ghefaili, 2003). The literature describes six specific teaching methods that are associated with cognitive apprenticeship: modeling, scaffolding, coaching, reflection, articulation, and exploration (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989; Collins & Kapur, 2006; Shah & Soosai Raj, 2024). Designers can use these six methods to inform the development of instructional materials and learning experiences that help novice learners develop the mental models and cognitive processes like that of experts. We discuss the six methods next.

Modeling & Mentorship

The first teaching method involved in cognitive apprenticeship is modeling. Modeling occurs when “the apprentice observes the master demonstrating how to do different parts of the task. The master makes the target processes visible, often by explicitly showing the apprentice what to do” (Collins, Brown, & Holum, 1991, p. 2). According to Collins et al. (1989), “Modeling provides novices with a clear demonstration of expert performance, allowing them to observe the strategies and behaviors that contribute to success. By imitating these actions, novices are able to acquire not only specific skills but also a deeper understanding of the cognitive processes underlying expert performance” (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989, pp. 482–483). Modeling also involves having access to experts who can serve as mentors. Access to mentors is essential to learning cognitive skills from experts because “the most effective mentors are those who consciously move their protégés from dependent, novice problem solvers to autonomous, expert problem solvers” (Barnett, 1995, p.46). One way mentors help students move from novice to expert is by modeling the desired behaviors they want learners to engage in. Designers can implement opportunities for modeling and mentorship through using detailed tutorials and video demos. These tutorials and video demos should depict the desired behavior learners are expected to do. The videos should showcase the expert in action and should include detailed explanations that work to make thinking visible by describing the cognitive processes the expert is engaged in during the task.

Coaching & Feedback

The next teaching method involved in cognitive apprenticeship is coaching. Coaching is when the “master observes and facilitates while students perform a task” (Ghefaili, 2003, p.11). In the coaching stage experts move away from modeling and move towards observing the novices’ behavior or learning. Through observation coaches are able to provide assistance when most needed and often ask learners relevant questions to encourage critical thinking and to provide different perspectives in various situations (Ghefaili, 2003). Coaching also involves a core tenet of expertise development which is feedback. Without feedback coaching would not be impactful or useful for learners. More specifically, in order to develop expertise, novices need clear and concise feedback. Research indicates that “the development of expertise requires coaches who are capable of giving constructive, even painful, feedback” (Ericsson, Prietula, & Cokely, 2007). Designers can develop a learning environment that provides ample opportunities for feedback through integrating instantly generated comments and suggestions as learners progress through a learning module. Feedback loops are also an effective way to provide opportunities for feedback. Feedback loops “grab data at different intervals of the learning process within the instructional design. Each loop returns information on the interactions and knowledge-building relationship between the student and the content, the student and the instructor, and the student and his peers” (Pate & Hunt, 2015, p.281). By implementing feedback loops designers can enhance the learning process and provide coaches the chance to provide individualized and specific feedback that helps novices accelerate their development of expertise.

Scaffolding

The third teaching method involved in cognitive apprenticeship is scaffolding. Scaffolding “is the support the master gives apprentices in carrying out a task. This can range from doing almost the entire task for them to giving occasional hints as to what to do next” (Collins, Brown, & Holum, 1991, p. 2). Scaffolding also involves faded support throughout the learning process. This means gradually reducing the support or insight a coach may provide a learner in order to help “students in developing the metacognitive skills of self-monitoring and self-correction and in achieving integrated skills and knowledge characteristic of expertise” (Ghefaili, 2003, p.13). Scaffolding when coupled with opportunities for deliberate practice can also help learners develop expertise. When experts reduce their support and instead provide novices with space to practice deliberately they are giving them the chance to have less dependence on the expert, (Ghefaili, 2003). Since deliberate practice involves “improving the skills you already have and extending the reach and range of your skills” (Ericsson et al., 2007, p.4), it is essential that designers provide opportunities for deliberate practice combined with scaffolding to help learners become more independent. Designers can implement space for learners to practice deliberately and for teachers to provide scaffolding through instructional guides and FAQs sections in learning modules. The instructional guides provide learners with the instructions on what to practice and how to practice it. While the FAQ section in a module provides learners with fading support rather than hands on immediate support that may be more frequent in the coaching stage.

Articulation

The fourth teaching method involved in cognitive apprenticeship is articulation. Articulation is when “learners are required to “explain and think about what they are doing” by making their knowledge explicit” (Ghefaili, 2003, p.13). In the articulation stage, learners must share the mental models they use to guide their behavior and in expertise development novices must adopt the mental models of experts in order to develop expertise. Experts when compared to novices have more advanced mental models that result in quicker thinking and problem solving. Research shows that “experts are better able to see meaningful patterns in a particular knowledge domain, are able to quickly solve problems with fewer errors, process information more deeply, remember more and spend more time analyzing novel problems” (Day, Harrison, & Halpin, 2008, p. 124). Designers can develop opportunities for learners to articulate their thinking process and to develop advanced mental models by integrating discussion boards and think aloud activities in learning modules. Designers can also include examples of experts demonstrating their thinking in the discussion boards and in the think aloud activities so that novices can examine the mental processes they engage in. Discussion boards and think aloud activities are effective ways to make the thinking visible because “they can make tacit knowledge explicit . . . to the degree that we can develop good process models of expert performance, we can embed these in technology, where they can be observed over and over for different details" (Collins, 1991, p. 125).

Reflection

The fifth teaching method involved in cognitive apprenticeship is reflection. In the reflection stage learners reflect on their work and compare what they know to what experts and other learners know. Reflection is also a necessary component of expertise development because it is viewed as “an information-processing strategy which not only provides opportunities for individuals to create mental networks, but also to develop more complex interconnections and depth of thinking characteristic of expert thinkers” (Barnett, 1995, p.49). Reflection is truly the foundation of developing the metacognitive processes of expertise and therefore its essential for designers to provide learners with opportunities for reflection. This can be done by designing guided questions and journaling activities for learners to engage in so that they can reflect on their learning. Additionally, providing examples of reflections crafted by experts is also an effective way to give novices insight into the thinking patterns of experts and can also encourage them to partake in the reflective activities that experts engage in.

Exploration

The sixth and final teaching method involved in cognitive apprenticeship is exploration. In the exploration stage as the name suggests the learner is given space to explore their own learning and the role of the coach in this stage “is to encourage students to be independent learners; identify personal interests; and pursue personal goals” (Ghefaili, 2003, p.14). As the final step in cognitive apprenticeship, the exploration stage is when learners nurture and develop their own learning independently and reach a level of expertise in their domain. In expertise development this would be the stage that the novice becomes an expert who is able to “use principles, concepts, and theories when solving problems and have well-defined pattern recognition skills” (Chi et al., 1988, p.47). Designers can provide learners with space for exploration and to hone their newfound expertise through integrating autonomous learning opportunities. This can be done by implementing explore buttons that encourage learners to further explore a topic or subject or by providing learners with an instructional library to do more research. Overall, thorough autonomous learning opportunities designers can give learners space to engage in exploration so that they can continue to become independent learners who nurture the development of their expertise.

Now that you understand the key aspects of cognitive apprenticeship, and how to design for them, it's time to put that knowledge into practice.

Design Challenge

Imagine you have been hired by a local medical school to train faculty on how to teach emergency medicine students the cognitive skills crucial to their specialty. How would you design a program to train the faculty effectively?

After you have outlined a course, let’s talk about what you learned.

Group Discussion Questions

Which cognitive apprenticeship teaching strategies would be the most effective in helping students identify the cognitive processes novices engage in?
What resources would you provide medical students to provide room for exploration in their learning?
In what stage of the cognitive apprenticeship model are novices expected to learn more independently?

Personal Reflection Questions

Try to remember a time you learned something through modeling. What behaviors and actions did the person modeling engage in that made it easier for you to learn?
Reflect on learning experiences that you’ve had in the workplace. What elements of cognitive apprenticeship could’ve made those learning experiences better?
Think about something you are an expert in. Pretend you are tasked with teaching a novice this skill. In what ways would you illustrate and share the cognitive processes you engage in during this task and how would you ensure that the novice is building the cognitive models required to develop expertise in this domain?

Possible Solutions

Develop a hybrid learning experience that gives faculty the opportunity to model, scaffold, and coach students during in-person learning. Then when students are out of the classroom, provide them with activities and opportunities to demonstrate their understanding of what they’ve learned. The activities should give students the chance to articulate and reflect on what they’ve learned and towards the end of the course students should be given space and support to further their exploration of the subject material.
Create a video that illustrates how faculty respond in different emergency medical situations. In the video be sure to also provide opportunities for faculty to share the thought processes behind their actions in order to make thinking visible for students.

Conclusion

Overall, cognitive apprenticeship assists novices in learning cognitive skills from experts because it makes thinking visible and gives learners insight into the advanced mental models experts use to develop and maintain their expertise. Designers can utilize the teaching methods of cognitive apprenticeship to accelerate the development of expertise in novices and to ensure that they are developing the cognitive skills necessary to excel in their domain. Moreover, the tenets of cognitive apprenticeship invite novices to learn by doing and thinking like an expert showcasing that “experts are always made, not born” ( Ericsson, Prietula, & Cokely, 2007, p. 4). With this in mind, it's essential to cultivate learning environments that utilize these principles to transform learning and teaching in the workplace and beyond.

Knowledge Check

Which teaching method in cognitive apprenticeship model can be combined with deliberate practice most effectively?
What are some ways designers can provide novices opportunities for reflection when learning?

“Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible,” by Allan Collins, John Seely Brown and Ann Holum
“The Making of an Expert,” by K. Anders Ericsson, Michael J. Prietula, and Edward T. Cokely
“Cognitive apprenticeship, Technology, and The Contextualization of Learning Environments,” by Aziz Ghefaili

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