How Can Designers Support Strong Leadership Qualities?

Introduction 

Leadership development is increasingly recognized as a critical component of effective organizational performance (Collins et al., 2004). Research indicates that effective leadership development programs can significantly improve various performance indicators, including individual leadership skills (Onyura et al., 2019), employee satisfaction, retention, and overall individual and team productivity (Namutebi, 2024; Cowden et al., 2011). The need is significant for effective leaders who can simultaneously adapt, influence, and inspire.

This chapter begins with a vignette detailing a highly successful leader development program at a Fortune 300 technology firm. We then consider the multidimensional nature of leadership development by leveraging the research from three disciplines: (1) expertise development from psychology; (2) adult learning from cognition and neuroscience; and (3) servant leadership development from management and human resource development. The heart of the chapter centers on the key principles of effective leader development and the corresponding design considerations. Taken together, our purpose in writing this chapter is to make clear for designers how to optimize the learning experience of novice leaders on their path toward expert practice.

Design in Context: Leadership Circles at a Tech Firm

The Leadership Circles program at a Fortune 300 tech company is now in its 11th year. The company’s Global Talent Development team describes Leadership Circles as “a very successful program with nearly 300 graduates that are now at Director or VP level.” The program includes several hallmark elements: a presentation of the principles of effective leadership from experts (PhD consultants), group discussions (in cohorts) at specific intervals over a one-year period, 1:1 coaching (with the same PhD consultants), shadowing, and 360° feedback.

Each Leadership Circles cohort begins each year in late January with an intensive two-and-a-half-day workshop led by a team of PhD consultants specializing in leadership. During the workshop, participants are introduced to core principles of effective leadership including emotional intelligence, strategic thinking, change management, and fostering team engagement. The consultants emphasize research-based strategies for developing these skills and relate them to real-world scenarios relevant to the tech industry.

Following this initial training, participants are divided into small groups, each comprising 5–7 individuals from different departments and organizations within the business. These cohorts meet once a month over the course of the year to discuss their experiences and challenges in applying the leadership principles they have learned. These discussions are guided by case studies and facilitated by senior leaders who serve as mentors. The group discussions foster peer learning and encourage participants to reflect on their personal growth and leadership journey.

Throughout the program, each participant is paired with an executive coach (from the same pool of PhD consultant experts) for personalized, one-on-one sessions. These quarterly sessions focus on each leader’s unique challenges and development goals. The coach helps participants set measurable goals, develop self-awareness, and enhance their decision-making and communication skills.

In addition to the coaching and group discussions, participants are given the opportunity to shadow senior executives within the company for a few days. This shadowing experience allows them to observe leadership in action and provides a hands-on understanding of how senior leaders handle complex issues such as stakeholder communication and team dynamics. After each shadowing session, participants debrief with their coach to explore insights and identify key takeaways.

Midway through the program (i.e., June–July), participants receive 360°  feedback, which involves input from their peers, direct reports, and supervisors. This feedback is used as a developmental aid to help participants understand how others perceive them and to identify both their strengths and areas for improvement. Coaches then use the feedback to refine the participants’ leadership development plans, tailoring strategies to better meet individual needs and enhance leadership impact.

By the end of the program in December, the Leadership Circles participants gained knowledge about leadership and practical tools for leading teams more effectively. Through group discussions, coaching, shadowing, and feedback, participants developed greater self-awareness, strategic thinking, and interpersonal skills, helping them transform from technical experts into well-rounded leaders capable of driving organizational success.

Discussion Questions

1. What do you think helped make the Leadership Circles program so successful?
2. Which element(s) of Leadership Circles do you think were the most effective? And why?

Introduction to Leadership Development

Leadership refers to the influence and guidance an individual exudes on others toward the achievement of a common goal (Northouse, 2021) and is often characterized by specific knowledge, behaviors, and styles (Uhl‐Bien et al., 2007). Leadership development, therefore, refers to the systematic process of enhancing individuals’ knowledge, skills, and behaviors to improve their capacity to effectively influence (Turner & Baker, 2017). Two fundamental questions must be answered before proceeding to the design of an effective leadership development program: What makes for strong leadership qualities? What constitutes an effective leadership development program?

Servant Leadership as Strong Leadership

Leadership is a multifaceted construct characterized by a combination of knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) that collectively contribute to a leader’s overall effectiveness. The interplay of these three dimensions is crucial to fostering an environment conducive to high performance and employee citizenship behaviors (Tran, 2023). This chapter will focus on servant leadership theory as the lens through which to discuss leadership development. Servant leadership (SL) theory provides a robust framework from which to consider strong leadership KSAs, as research has discovered positive outcomes at the individual, team, and organization levels (Eva et al., 2019; Martinez, 2016). Servant leadership is a leadership approach that emphasizes the leader's role in prioritizing follower development, well-being, and empowerment, with the ultimate aim of benefiting the organization (Martinez & Leija, 2023). As a manifestation of research-based strong leadership, we discuss the specific KSAs associated with SL next.

Knowledge. Research shows that leaders must possess a deep understanding of their domain, including industry-specific knowledge and organizational dynamics (Day et al., 2009). This knowledge enables leaders to make informed decisions and guide their teams effectively. One of the primary domains of knowledge possessed by servant leaders is an understanding of individual and organizational dynamics (Martinez, 2016). Research indicates that servant leaders foster autonomy, competence, and relatedness among their followers, which significantly enhances individual performance and positive employee behaviors (Chiniara & Bentein, 2016; Martinez & Leija, 2023). Furthermore, servant leaders are skilled in knowledge sharing, which is crucial for facilitating organizational change and enhancing collaborative efforts among team members (Saeed, 2023). This ability to share knowledge promotes a culture of learning and empowers employees to contribute actively to the organization's goals (Coetzer et al., 2017).

Servant leaders also possess a deep knowledge of their followers' needs and aspirations. They acquire such knowledge by engaging in one-on-one communication to understand the unique characteristics, goals, and potential of each individual (Mashiloane & Pooe, 2013). This relational approach allows servant leaders to customize their support and guidance in a tailored fashion, which in turn fosters an environment of trust (Liao et al., 2021).

Skills. Strong leaders also demonstrate a variety of skills in order to be effective.  Servant leaders’ key skills and behaviors can be categorized into several dimensions, including ethical conduct, active listening, empathy, empowerment, and community orientation. One of the foremost skills of servant leaders is their commitment to ethical conduct and moral principles. Research indicates that servant leaders exhibit a strong ethical code, which guides their decision-making and inspires followers to engage in behaviors that enhance overall organizational performance (Shafi et al., 2020; Newman et al., 2017). This ethical foundation fosters a culture of trust and integrity, which is crucial for effective leadership.

Active listening is a fundamental skill that servant leaders possess, enabling them to effectively communicate with their followers. This involves not only hearing what is said but also understanding the underlying messages and emotions (Simón et al., 2022). Active listening fosters open communication, encourages feedback, and helps leaders address concerns and challenges their team members face (Kahya & Kuloğlu, 2022). This behavior is essential for building strong relationships and promoting a culture of collaboration and trust within the organization.

Empathy is another critical behavior exhibited by servant leaders. They actively seek to understand the needs and feelings of their followers, which allows them to provide tailored support and guidance (Joseph & Winston, 2005). This empathetic approach strengthens leader-follower relationships and enhances followers' commitment to the organization (Newman et al., 2017). By prioritizing their team members’ emotional and psychological well-being, servant leaders create an environment where individuals feel valued and motivated to contribute positively.

Empowerment is a defining characteristic of SL. Servant leaders focus on empowering their followers by providing them with the autonomy and resources necessary to succeed in their roles (Cai et al., 2018; Khan et al., 2021). This empowerment is linked to increased employee job satisfaction, creativity, and innovative work behaviors (Vhalery, 2024; Mei-zhao et al., 2022). By fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility, servant leaders encourage their followers to take initiative and engage in proactive behaviors that benefit the organization.

Attitudes. A leader’s attitude also plays a critical role in shaping the leader's effectiveness. A positive attitude towards leadership and a commitment to the well-being of team members can foster a culture of trust and engagement (Gunderson et al., 2012). Research by Alsarrani and Jusoh (2019) discovered that effective leadership styles are closely linked to the quality of leadership, which in turn impacts team and organizational success.

One of the core attitudes of SL is the commitment to serving others. This selfless perspective is fundamental to the SL philosophy, where leaders prioritize the needs and development of their followers above their own interests (Sendjaya & Pekerti, 2010; Dierendonck, 2010). This attitude fosters an environment of trust and collaboration, as followers feel valued and supported in their personal and professional growth. Research indicates that this commitment to service enhances follower satisfaction and contributes to higher levels of organizational commitment and performance (Saleh, 2024; Irfan et al., 2022).

Closely related, servant leaders possess a deep belief in the potential of their followers. They actively encourage and empower their team members to realize their full capabilities through coaching, mentoring, and providing growth opportunities (Saleh, 2024; Robinson et al., 2020). This attitude enhances individual performance and fosters a culture of innovation and creativity, as followers feel empowered to take risks and contribute their ideas (Alasadi et al., 2019; Irfan et al., 2022). By nurturing the potential of their followers, servant leaders create a dynamic and engaged workforce that is committed to the organization's success.

A Framework for Developing Strong Leadership Qualities

Leadership involves a collection of qualities that require time to develop. To identify the design features that optimize the development of strong leadership qualities, we relied on the literatures and theories of psychology, adult learning, and servant leader development (Martinez et al., 2024). Research has found several elements to be critical to the development of servant leader KSAs (Martinez, 2016). Whereas some KSA’s can be developed in a single workshop, our synthesis has found five elements that when present are most effective at developing strong leadership KSAs over an extended period of time (i.e., many sessions over many months or perhaps years, etc.) (see Figure 1 below): (1) reflection to enhance metacognition; (2) access to top mental models; (3) access to strong, immediate feedback; (4) an opportunity for deliberate practice; and (5) and a desirable level of difficulty or challenge as a part of the learning and practice (Martinez et al., 2024). These five dimensions become a guiding framework in designing an effective leadership development program, which we discuss next.

Figure 1. Model for Effective Leadership Development Programs

Designing to Build Strong Leadership Qualities

Reflection to Enhance Metacognition

Advanced metacognitive skills are a hallmark of expert performance, including expert servant leadership (Ericsson & Pool, 2016; Martinez, 2016; Martinez et al., 2024). The literature suggests that an individual’s metacognition is fundamentally developed during moments of reflection (Schön, 1987). Reflection is the mechanism by which novices develop advanced and complex mental models that mirror the thinking process of experts (Barnett, 1995). In essence, reflection is a catalyst for developing expert-like leadership thinking (Odom & Dunn, 2023; Schilling et al., 2023). Studies have also found that engaging in reflection helps increase self-awareness, which is a major component of effective leadership (Avolio, 2010). Therefore, research has found that reflection opportunities should be interwoven into or after learning activities for optimal development because it forces the individual to evaluate where improvements must be made and to adjust their mental models of effective leadership (Day et al., 2009; McCauley, 2008). For these reasons, in Figure 1, Reflection to Enhance Metacognition is depicted as a critical part of each of the other four dimensions (i.e., the four bidirectional arrows).

To successfully design a learning experience that provides appropriate opportunities for reflection, consider the following:

• Journaling and Guided Self-Reflection: Reflection can be facilitated by self-analysis strategies such as guided self-reflection, journal writing, and other informal techniques in which thoughts, goals, and intentions are put into writing (Elvira et al., 2017). Therefore, consider invoking reflection in the novice leaders by prompting them with questions and asking them to reflect on their own leadership practice. Below we present several examples of prompts based on various KSAs you might seek to develop.

• Empathy: When was the last time I actively sought input from someone with a different perspective? How do I ensure that every team member feels heard, valued, and respected?
• Decision-making: What is my process for making difficult decisions, and how do I involve others in it?
• Team Dynamics: How well do I understand the individual strengths and needs of my team members? What steps have I taken to build trust within my team?
• Strategic Thinking: How do I encourage innovation and continuous improvement within my team? How well am I balancing the needs of individuals, the team, and the organization?

• Encourage Adaptive Behavior: Focus reflection on learning what can be improved in the future, rather than only on what went wrong (Avolio & Hannah, 2008). Consider designing components of your leadership program to include the benefits of errors in the learning process (e.g., dedicating entire sessions, readings, or discussions to the benefits of errors as a leader).
• Mentorship: Mentors can model expert metacognitive skills and lead learners in reflective practice (Barnett, 1995). Therefore, consider incorporating a mentorship element to the design of your leadership development program. As part of the mentorship experience, we suggest 1-on-1 time between mentor/mentee that allows the mentor space to provide feedback, and the mentee the space to pose direct questions and receive answers.

Access to Top Mental Models

A mental model is a cognitive structure that represents anything that the mind is focused on (Ericsson & Pool, 2016). With respect to expertise development, top or expert performers provide the most refined and effective mental models (Subotnik & Jarvin, 2005). The advantage of top mental models stems from being able to see the details and the bigger picture simultaneously (Chi, 2006). Ultimately, what sets expert leaders apart from novice leaders is the depth and breadth of their mental models (Ericsson & Pool, 2016). The expert leader’s advantage lies in the ability to envision more possible outcomes and quickly sift through them to arrive at the most promising course of action. Additionally, expert leaders possess a more highly developed ability to interpret the pattern of action on the field. In short, better mental representations of leadership produce better decision making and, ultimately, better performance (Martinez, 2024).

Providing a novice leader access to expert leaders’ cognitive, behavioral, and socio-emotional mental models is necessary for optimal leader development (Elvira et al., 2017). Therefore, designers should consider the following principles and activities to provide access to sufficient quality and quantity of expert mental models:

• Lectures and Talks: Consider offering the initial presentation of information of concepts to novice leaders in the form of lectures and/or talks (Zaccaro & Klimoski (Eds), 2001). In this manner, novices begin to see the principles and practices of expert leader thinking and acting. Then combining the lectures and talks with discussions encourages social learning and reflection for novice leaders. Shadowing, Coaching, and Modeling: Shadowing allows individuals to perceive firsthand the leadership skills and behaviors of experienced leaders, thereby facilitating a deeper understanding of effective leadership practices real-time (Lalleman et al., 2017). Mentors and coaches can guide novices to become independent expert problem solvers, providing the necessary feedback and language/vocabulary to facilitate their cognitive growth, and by developing a formula to guide them in helping them reach their goals. In doing so, mentors can help novice leaders maintain their confidence in their potential for growth (Barnett, 1995). Therefore, consider including an element of shadowing, coaching, and/or mentoring when designing leader development programs.
• Think-alouds: A think-aloud protocol is a technique used to gain insights into an individual's cognitive processes by having them verbalize their thoughts while performing a task. This technique allows learners to understand the mental models, strategies, and decision-making processes of expert leaders in real-time. To assist in understanding thought-processes and problem-solving approaches of strong leaders, consider using think-alouds in training sessions.
• Case Studies: Case studies allow novice leaders to learn from a historical example, activating previous knowledge to represent specific workplace situations (Boshuizen et al., 2020). We recommend identifying or creating a case from which to use as a vicarious learning tool.

Access to Strong, Immediate Feedback

A leader’s development is accelerated to the degree to which strong, immediate feedback is received and reflected upon. Reflection of performance allows a leader to more easily refine their craft. Fortunately, strong feedback evokes reflection (from Elvira et al., 2017). The literature describes immediacy and clarity to be key characteristics of strong feedback (Wisniewski et al., 2020), as research has found that clear feedback within and immediately after a training program significantly improves the onset of training transfer (Lacerenza et al., 2017). Second, strong feedback contains three elements: (1) an assessment of the current state; (2) desired state; and (3) the steps or path to get from the current state to the desired state (Martinez et al., 2024).

Professionals can design feedback opportunities into both individual lessons as well as an entire program by considering the following:

• Timely Feedback: Timely feedback is essential for motivating the development of reasoning skills and the ability to correct errors promptly (Ericsson, 2004). Therefore, consider designing mechanisms into the learning experience so that feedback is given in a consistent and timely fashion.
• 360° Feedback: Schwartz et al. (2022) and Hazucha et al. (1993) found that pairing 360° feedback with coaching interventions can yield significant leadership insights. This pairing enables leaders to identify areas for improvement and develop concrete strategies for enhancing their leadership practice. For these reasons, we suggest including mechanisms for 360° feedback into your developmental experience.
• *Remember, designing reflection opportunities as part of the feedback experience is vital, because the reflection is an essential component of encoding the most learned information possible from the experience into one’s long-term memory and adjusting their mental models.

Deliberate Practice

Effective leaders typically demonstrate a commitment to continuous learning for skill enhancement, including a willingness to practice new skills (Avolio, 2014). A designer can include the principles of deliberate practice into a learning experience for novice leaders in the following ways:

• Set Specific Objectives: Deliberate practice should focus on specific leadership KSAs that include precise goals and objectives that are purposeful and aligned with the context of the intended performance. To do this, first break down the desired leadership KSA into constituent parts (Martinez, 2024). Then to maximize focused attention, deliberate practice should be structured around one (or very few) specific parts at a time until mastery of that part is achieved (Martinez et al., 2024).
• Simulations: When practicing in a real-world environment is not feasible, simulations serve as the most effective alternative. “Experiential activities can accelerate this process due to the fact that they enable individuals to practice, evaluate, reflect, and act in a safe environment and close to reality game” (Lopes et al., 2013, p. 17).
• Reflection: Design instructional activities to stimulate and strengthen reflection after a practice opportunity as a means of building the metacognitive skills that are vital to expert leader development.

Desirable Difficulty

Optimal learning and development, of any type, require a certain degree of challenge (Sweller, 1994). Worded differently, a learning activity or exercise that is difficult (i.e., not easy) is necessary for optimal learning to be possible (Martinez, 2024). Specifically, an excessive challenge could be detrimental because repeated failures are not conducive to optimal learning; and too little resistance is also harmful because it often entices atrophy or boredom (Bjork & Bjork, 2011).

To achieve the “desirable” level of difficulty, Elvira et al. (2017) found that exposure to a broad, appropriate set of problems and then being challenged to differentiate among them helped develop an individual’s mental models. Working with a variety of problems helps novice leaders to recognize patterns. Then when they see a new problem, they can recognize a similarity with an old problem. A designer might leverage the advantages of difficulty and resistance in the following ways:

• Problem Creation: When designing problems or scenarios, it is best to include both typical and atypical situations. Research has found that solving atypical problems in different contexts accelerates the development of expert problem diagnosis and problem solving (Elvira et al., 2017). Problems should resemble the complexities, nuances, and ambiguities of situations that arise in practice as closely as possible. However, a gradual increase in complexity is best.
• Gradually Add Complexity: Deliberate practice sessions should be difficult yet attainable (Day et al., 2009). Consider starting with small, easily attainable tasks or goals and gradually add complexity, helping leaders build and develop their mental schemas over time.
• Leverage the Benefits of Mistakes: By engaging in tasks that challenge leaders appropriately, (1) making and (2) correcting mistakes promotes neuroplasticity. In this manner, mistakes are learning opportunities, not setbacks. Mistakes are viewed as invaluable learning opportunities, serving to enhance learning and development (Avolio, 2014). Making and recognizing mistakes provide opportunities for creativity and encourages developing leaders to try new behaviors or reframe existing problems.

Conclusion

Leadership development is a multifaceted process that plays a critical role in shaping an individual’s capacity to effectively lead. As explored in this chapter, strong leadership is a specific collection of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that can be developed through thoughtful design. Effective leadership development programs should be holistic, leveraging the five dimensions we have discussed. Ultimately, through investing in leadership development and thoughtful design, novice leaders can accelerate toward being more effective experts, which is critical for an organization’s success.

Read More

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