Freedom of Religion and Religious Extremism
Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
- Identify religious practices that fall into each of the three categories of religious extremism.
- Evaluate the risks involved with each category of religious extremism.
- Evaluate appropriate remedies and responses to religious extremism.
Introduction
What is religious extremism?
- Traditionally, religious extremism describes actions motivated by religious belief that cause physical harm to other people.
Although this is the traditional understanding of religious extremism, some nations have altered their perspectives on religious extremism to include religious belief or teachings that conflicts with specific societal values.
Guiding Principle
Religion is and has been a source of motivation and inspiration for advancing justice and equality for all, but some religious doctrine may encourage members to harm themselves or others. However, it is important to keep in mind that not all religious belief labeled “extreme” by some societies warrants being restricted.
Government action focused on preventing dangerous religious extremism and protecting society from danger should focus on these principles:
-
- Government should presume that religious practice is motivated by sincerely-held religious belief.
- All people are equal before the law, regardless of religious belief or action.
- Government action in response to religious extremism often involves difficult balancing tests, attempting to resolve conflicts between rights.
Categories of Religious Extremism
| Type I | Type II | Type III | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Terrorism | Danger to Adherents | Danger to Societal Values | |
| Definition |
Religiously motivated terrorism is religious violence where terrorism is used to achieve religious goals or which is motivated by religious identity. |
Religious doctrine or belief that encourages members of the congregation to engage in actions that pose a serious threat to the health or wellbeing of themselves. |
Religious belief encouraging practice which directly conflicts with some aspects of societal values. |
| Distinguishing Characteristics | Target other members of society, not the adherents | Targets the believers | Focuses on religious beliefs that teach against societal values |
| Examples |
Sept 11th attack in the US 2016 Nice truck attack in Nice, France |
Jonestown, Guyana Massacre in 1978 Order of the Solar Temple |
Animal sacrifice Refusal of blood transfusions |
One important point to consider while reviewing this chapter is that although different countries around the world take varying approaches to the potential threats of religious extremism, no single country has been perfect in its application. As such, it is important to keep in mind that this is an area of law and policy which is still developing. This chapter will present you with a number of examples from different countries. These countries have taken their own approaches to religious extremism and each approach has its pluses and minuses.
TYPE I- Religiously Motivated Acts of Terrorism
This is what people generally envision when they think of religious extremism. The primary distinguishing factor is that religiously motivated acts of terrorism target other members of society. Although religiously motivated acts of terrorism can also affect the adherents, they are not the primary target of the action.
Examples of religiously motivated terrorism:
- September 11th Attacks in the United States
- 2016 Nice truck attack in Nice, France
Practice Example
France “Burqa Ban” – France became the first country to place a ban of full-face veils in public, referred to as the “Burqa Ban.” Obviously, the religious mandate that many Muslim women wear face-coverings in public was diametrically opposed to this legislation. The motivation behind this ban was that a full-face covering prevents the apparent identification of individuals which can pose a threat to security. Certainly individuals who are not identifiable could take advantage of their anonymity and engage in terrorist activities. However, the “Burqa Ban” would appropriately burden those who pose a threat to France’s national security, but inappropriately burden women who, based on sincerely held religious belief, want to express their religious sentiments. Additionally, many French legislators viewed the religious requirement that women wear face-coverings in public as sexist and that this ban would force assimilation into French society. Despite the societal motivations for this ban, many individuals and organizations denounced this legislation as a clear violation of freedom of expression.
As you can see, the "Burqa Ban" took an approach that allowed public officials to identify all individuals while in public. On one hand, this approach was useful in allowing public officials to identify all individuals in public. However, it also significantly abridged individuals' rights to act on their religious belief.
TYPE II- Religious Actions that Pose Danger to the Adherents
This type of religious extremism is much more subtle. Instead of targeting other members of society, this type of extremism targets the believers themselves.
Examples of religious belief that threatens the lives/safety of religious adherents:
- Jonestown, Guyana Massacre in 1978
- Order of the Solar Temple
Practice Example
French Anti-sect Policies – In the 1990s, there was a series of collective suicides in the Americas, Europe, and Asia. Between 1996 and 2001, the French government established a system to address the threats of religious extremism, including legislation meant to prevent and repress sectarian groups. However, they initially included a line in the legislation making, what was phrased “mental manipulation” a crime. After that specific wording was dropped because of social backlash, it was replaced by wording that carried a similar sentiment which targets so-called cults for “abuse of a person’s state of weakness.”
TYPE III- Religious Action that Threatens Societal Values
Though the previous two categories pose direct physical threats to individuals, this third category is much more fluid. Instead of focusing on the physical threats religious exercise can pose, it focuses on religious belief that teaches against traditional societal values.
Here are some examples of religious belief labeled “extreme” despite no physical threat to society. These, examples, however, are not to be seen as actual religious extremism, only that they have been interpreted as such by other nations.
- Religions that practice animal sacrifice
- Religious teaching against blood-transfusions
Practice Example
2016 Russian Anti-extremism Legislation- Another example of legislation that substantially limits the free exercise of religion. The Russian legislature passed a law focused on preventing, and punishing, religious extremism. However, the law itself provided examples of “religiously extreme activity.” The Jehovah’s Witnesses were disproportionately targeted by this Russian legislature because of their beliefs. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that receiving blood transfusions is a violation of God’s law, therefore religious leaders in this organization teach against receiving blood transfusions in all circumstances. The Russian legislation explicitly labeled the practice of refusing medical treatment “extreme.” Additionally, the Jehovah’s Witnesses preach against serving in the military. However, the Russian Federation requires every able-bodied Russian male to serve in the military. The Russian legislation also labeled this doctrine “extreme.” Though these policies do not necessarily pose a physical threat to society, they were still labeled extreme and legislation was enacted to greatly restrict religious exercise. Ultimately, this legislation lead to Jehovah's Witnesses losing their legal registration in Russia.
Like the "Burqa Ban" presented above, Russia took an approach to limit the spread of what they labeled religious extremism. This approach, which led to substantial limitations in religious liberty, has been widely criticized and labeled an inappropriate approach to the potential threats of religious extremism.
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